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Wednesday, July 31, 2019

Distracted While Driving

Distracted While Driving Virtually anyone who has a driver’s license has been introduced to the idea that distracted driving causes accidents. However, the consequences of distracted driving are far more than just predictable and often taken lightly. Predictable events can be avoided. Since these are predictable events they are preventable. The choices that drivers make affect more people than they may realize, thus making them responsible for the consequences that result from those choices.On a daily basis more than 15 American deaths and another 1,200 injuries are attributed to drivers that are distracted while driving on the very roads most of us use every day (Harvard Men’s Health Watch, page 7). Distractions can be controlled at a minimum by drivers that make the choice to drive responsibly. There are three types of distractions that have been labeled as the â€Å"triple threat† to driving; Visual distraction, manual distraction, and cognitive distraction ar e the makeup of this triple threat (Harvard Men’s Health Watch, page 6).Paying more attention to texting than to crossing the street or driving a car portrays a visual distraction that can result in dire consequences. Texting has proven to take at least part of the driver’s visual focus away from the task of driving in order to read or send a text message (Gardner, page 1). Contents of text messages usually require the driver’s visual focus, even if for just a few seconds. The visual awareness is negatively affected when this happens because the driver is no longer watching the road and cannot react to unforeseen events in a timely manner.Elevated risks of being in an accident that involves texting while driving presents a serious public safety hazard. â€Å"This problem may become more severe as more texting teens become licensed drivers, and more adults add text messaging to their battery of cell phone communication abilities† (Gardner, page 1). The mor e attention that is paid to texting means that more attention is being diverted from performing activities that require visual perception, and which can escalate to manual distractions (Gardner, page 3).One or both hands off the wheel of a car while driving is most often related to multi-tasking, and is considered a manual distraction that is categorized as a â€Å"preventable† contributor (Harvard Men’s Health Watch, page 6). Preventable driving behaviors that include dialing, talking and listening to cell phones contribute to road hazards at alarming rates. Delays in reacting to potential hazards while driving caused by preoccupations with mobile communications result in accidents that are often times more severe to the drivers and passengers involved in the accident.Additional contributing factors to manual distractions are the use of GPS navigation systems, eating, drinking, and bending down to grab something off of the floor or inside a handbag while driving. Mult i-tasking while driving is often dictated from our hectic lives at the cost of injury to ourselves or to others in correlation with both manual and cognitive distractions. Cognitive distractions occur when a driver’s mind is not focused on driving.Listening to a favorite radio station, talking to another passenger, and being preoccupied with issues pertaining to work or family formulate a distractive environment for a driver. Drivers who talk on cell phones are four times more likely to crash than non-distracted drivers (Harvard Men’s Health Watch, page 7). This means that driving while talking on a cell phone is as risky as driving while drunk. Cognitive overload is described as being out of sync with the rhythm of the road and the rhythm of talk (Harvard Men’s Health Watch, page 7).There are five tips on how to avoid common driving distractions: turn off your cell phone, use a hands free device only in cases of emergency, make sure all passengers have a safety belt equipped, eat before or after you drive, and program your GPS before you leave your driveway or parking lot. If you have to deal with any of these or other issues while driving pull over to the side of the road to address the given situation. Following these steps can assist in preventing the loss of life due to distracted driving.The cognitive distractions caused by the use of mobile phones while driving usually cause vehicular accidents to be more severe, however there are steps that can be taken to improve both personal and public safety; it’s up to us to take those steps (Professional Safety, page 1). Visual, manual and cognitive distractions that occur simultaneously while driving are a recipe for vehicular related fatalities involving American teenagers, and often times unsuspecting victims as a result (Harvard Men’s Health Watch, page 6).Hand-held cell phones involve visual distraction while dialing, manual distraction while holding the phone, and cognitiv e distraction throughout the whole use of the device (Harvard Men’s Health Watch, page 7). Informing old drivers and introducing new drivers to the dangers of being distracted while driving may raise support in preventing the use of hand held devices while driving. If our society does nothing to stress the importance of awareness while driving, the fatality statistics will only become more severe each passing month.It can be very tempting to answer the cell phone, respond to a text message, reprogram the GPS, and perhaps even grab that bite to eat on the way to work but is the risk worth the cost? Resisting the temptation and focusing on the road will enable a driver to react to unexpected events and maybe avoid a collision with another unsuspecting driver. Personal responsibility ultimately is the solution to distracted driving and contributes to saving lives. â€Å"Just as it is no longer socially acceptable to drive without a seat belt, or drive drunk, it must no longer b e acceptable to text while driving† (Gardner, page 10).Driving is a demanding visual, manual, and cognitive activity that has no room for multi-tasking in it without risk to someone’s life or injury (Harvard Men’s Health Watch, page 7). References Distracted driving: Fast lane to disaster. (May 2012). Harvard Men’s Health Watch, 16(10), 6-7. Distracted Driving Problem Extends Beyond Texting. (February 2012). Professional Safety, 57(2), 24. Gardner, L. A. (November 2010). Wat 2 do abt txt’n & drv’n (aka: What to do about the problem of texting while driving? ). CPCU Ejournal, 63(11), 1-13.

Tuesday, July 30, 2019

Desegregation and the Future Essay

The civil rights movement was one of the most pivotal periods in United States history, and Martin Luther King was one of the most influential. In Martin Luther King’s speech, â€Å"Segregation and the Future†, to convey the theme of freedom he uses rhetorical devices such as repetition and metaphors. In his speech, the use of repetition was used to better convey his points and to let the audience know what he wants with clarity. An example of this repetition is when he repeats the word, â€Å"leaders†. His use of repetition for the word leaders was to remind the National Committee of Rural Schools that they are supposed to lead with a purpose and that purpose according to Martin Luther King was to better educate both white and black students with equal treatment. He wants the leaders of the committee to lead others in a better way of thinking, and to stray from current ideas that infringe on the rights of African Americans. Another example of repetition in his speech is his use of the words, â€Å"not the way†. He wants the audience to know he views would impede upon their cause. He lists violence, hate and bitterness as things that are, â€Å"not the way† to help with their cause. The second prominent rhetorical device that Martin Luther King used were metaphors. One example of a metaphor that coveys the theme of freedom is when compares a, â€Å"festering sore† to segregation. Martin Luther King’s comparison shows his contempt for segregation and how freedom is always the better choice. Comparisons to negative objects or situations, put things like segregation into a more personal and more understandable meaning, making this metaphor powerful. A second example of King’s use of metaphor is his comparison of the Supreme Court decision of Brown v. Board to a â€Å"joyous daybreak† that ended the â€Å"long night of human captivity†. Martin Luther King uses this comparison to show how momentous this Supreme Court decision was. The Supreme Court ruled that segregation in schools was unconstitional, became a huge step toward equality and Martin Luther’s comparison shows this. Martin Luther King’s use of repetition and metaphors makes his speeches more inspiring and more emotional to others. Without his use of rhetorical  devices, his speeches would fall on deaf ears and wouldn’t have caused a movement toward equality. His use of repetition and metaphors in this speech better display his themes of freedom and have inspired America for years to come.

Monday, July 29, 2019

International Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 11

International Business - Essay Example Globalization enabled investors to enter new potential regions with innovative business ideas. Today companies, governments, and non-governmental organizations have access to equity fund providers. Numerous equity companies are willing to invest in global market providing international business organizations with human capital and equity capital support. For instance, companies like Hamilton Bradshaw assist international companies by supporting expansion, development, and recapitalization. Changing global economy will certainly demand more equity support and outsourcing help in future. It will promote more entrepreneurs entering the global capital market because the aftermath of the recent recession would persist throughout the next decade. Governmental policies across the world on privatization also have contributed to the emergence of capital market. 2. In order to be competitive in a free global market with no trade barriers and restrictions, a company has to expand its business to international level. In the current business environment of cutthroat competition, a company is forced to seek new potential areas and alternatives for business consistency. To illustrate, the absence of constraints has enabled international business entrepreneurs to enter and dominate domestic markets of any area. If critiques are to b believed, many of the indigenous businesses and small scale or cottage industries are at the verge of extinction. It happens as the international giants come up with machine-made quality products at cheaper cost to acquire the local market. They have advanced technological backup and cost effective mode of business operation that enable them to manufacture products in bulk. In contrast, local business groups rely on conventional strategies and out-dated organizational structures which presumably add to their failure. However, business expansion is not a difficult task for modern organizations as they

Sunday, July 28, 2019

Factors that Influence the Volatility in Exchange Markets in China Research Paper

Factors that Influence the Volatility in Exchange Markets in China - Research Paper Example Factors that Influence the Volatility in Exchange Markets in China Foreign exchange influences the countries ability to conduct business relations with its trading associates. Therefore, the factors, which control the exchange patterns of a countries currency, become vital to it. Considering this, the Central banks have the mandate of monitoring the exchange fluctuations of the currency. It is in a position to instill stability of the currency by tightening the financial policies of exchange rates of banks and bureaus. The first role includes the â€Å"transfer function† which is essential in facilitating the transfer of the purchasing capacity of the trading countries. For example, if the exchange rate US is superior to that of China, for instance 2.68 Yuan: 1$, the Chinese firms will incur more to import from US. The second is the â€Å"credit function† role that entails the provision of credit for foreign trade. The transfer of commodities takes time, and this transit period requires financing. The trader’s exchange agents and banks furnish the foreign traders with credit facilities to facilitate trade. Thirdly, the exchange rates assist in hedging against the variation of the currency markets. The exchange rates market has structures that importers and exporters can use to evade the excessive costs and risks of exchange rate patterns. Hedging enables corporations evade the exchange risks through exchange agreements by using the following rates: Fixed exchange rates, Forward exchange rate and Spot rate. Relevance of Spot Exchange Rate (SER) in exchange markets The spot rate is the existing transfer rate of foreign currencies in comparison to the home currency (Wang, 2009). This rate is determines by the existing economic situations in a country. Interestingly, the political circumstances of the country also have a considerable effect on the exchange rates. Therefore, changes in the fu ture expectations can disrupt the current spot rate. Miller (2002) suggests Spot rates are crucial since they depict the

Saturday, July 27, 2019

Compare Financial alternatives for major purchases Speech or Presentation

Compare Financial alternatives for major purchases - Speech or Presentation Example the currently commercially available technologies (Americanrivers, 2011).The construction of dams also allow for the creation of many opportunities for water sports, the construction of campsites, hiking and biking trails as well as hotels, lodges, and many other businesses around the lakeshore. The increase in tourism in the area along with all the improvements in infrastructure around the area will help develop the local economy and benefit all surrounding communities. The subject of dam construction has been a hotly debated issue especially since the 1960’s when the environmental impact of dam construction started to be considered and analyzed. To start with constructing a new dam is an incredibly expensive and complex undertaking, usually with total project costs running into the billions and taking numerous years to complete (Pottinger, 1996). When a dam is constructed in a river system the whole balance of the ecosystem upstream and downstream of the newly constructed dam will be negatively affected or even completely destroyed as a direct consequence of disrupting the natural seasonal flow of the river system. Prior to the construction of the dam, the river has a natural flow that responds to the seasonal changes and brings a constant flow of debris and sedimentation that helps bring food and nutrients for all the natural wildlife living in the river system. After a dam is constructed the flow of the water is artificially limited and c ontrolled so the flow is usually constant and very restricted and only increased to decrease water levels or increase power production and does not correlate natural seasonal fluctuations. Furthermore all the sedimentation and the necessary food and nutrients carried with it will now be deposited in the impoundment upstream of the dam, destroying the ecosystem and killing most of the natural wildlife downstream. The evaporation rate of the river system will be significantly higher because of the vastly greater surface area

Title ix Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Title ix - Research Paper Example Furthermore, while Title IX legally prohibits discriminatory practices in state funded programs, it does not order the maintenance of strict ratio between the proportions the two genders in the institution’s athletic programs and its student body (Cohen v. Brown University). Furthermore, as far as the scope of Title IX is concerned, academic institutions have had to make tough decisions regarding which athletics programs fall within the scope of this law. The existing state of sports budget was such that in most institutions, the largest part of sports budgets were allocated to men’s athletics which did not reflect the percentage of men in the student body (Cohen v. Brown University). Keeping in view the above confusion, a law was passed in 1984 with respect to Title IX. In 1984 the U.S Supreme Court had passed the law that Title IX applied exclusively to those programs that were funded by state money (Cohen v. Brown University). This law was enforced in the context of Grove vs. City Bell (which shall be discussed later). This implied that discrimination was not illegal in activities or programs that were not funded by state money. This means that discrimination on the basis of gender in athletic sports would not be considered unlawful because very few of such programs are funded by the state or have funds allocated specifically for them. Additionally, athletic programs can be considered as subunits of an institution’s programs that receive state money for a wide range of reasons including funds for construction, student aids, feeding programs and research grants. The first case to be analyzed is the case of United States vs. Virginia. The Virginia Military Institute (VMI) has been noted for its lack of co-education and being an exclusively male undergraduate institute. This institution was sued by the United States with the argument that exclusive admissions to males were unconstitutional. This stance

Friday, July 26, 2019

Economics of Leisure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 2

Economics of Leisure - Essay Example He believed that the remaining hours could be in pursuit of writing, printing and innovation. In 1930s, John Maynard Keynes, one of the neo-classical economists predicted that people would only need to work for less than 15 hours in a week by 2030. 84 years after Keynes prediction, it appears that people are working even more hours with the advancement of technology. Questions asked by neo classical economists are whether the trends conform to economic priori as adopted by the classical. The discussion in this paper will negate the notion that advancement in technology associated with economic growth results into high leisure hours. It will also discuss the reasons as to why this happens. Economic development which entails the advancement of nation’s institutions has leisure at its focal point. Most nations that are on the take off mainly focus on the economic growth and not development. The developed countries on other hand are mainly focused on enhancing the living standards of its people. It means that leisure remains at the focal point. Despite this, people from these countries still have reduced number of leisure hours. There are however a number of reasons that causes increase and reduced working and leisure hour respectively (Gary 2007). Firstly, the development of technology entails the advancement of consumer goods. Most people are often amazed by new technological advancement such as personal computer, digital camera, internet among other technologies. Therefore, the only way people must maintain this level of technology is to work more hours (Cooke 1994). Research has proved that people will rarely stop working when they have free time, instead they will yearn to get more. As human makes money, there will be a need to make more. Most people have realised that working faster will give them an opportunity to make more money. Through this, most people have realized that their ability of

Thursday, July 25, 2019

Hillary Clinton will be elected president in 2008 Essay

Hillary Clinton will be elected president in 2008 - Essay Example The Iraq war has become unpopular with many Americans. Although the official cause for the war in Iraq was to free Iraqis from the rule of Saddam Hussein, fight terrorism, and eliminate the "weapons of mass destruction" that were supposedly being stockpiled by Hussein, inspectors were not able to confirm the existence of those weapons and a large number of Iraqis see the US Army as an occupation force, not as an army of liberation. The information that linked Hussein to Al-Queda has been proven to be false. Many believe that the war was really over control of Iraq's oil resources. The war originally seemed to be successful, as the US Military defeated Iraq's official army quickly and occupied Baghdad; however, there is currently a continuous civil war in Iraq that seems to be unwinnable by America. The only reliable method of winning guerilla wars is genocide, which no one in America supports. The US Army is becoming overextended. There have also been accusations and proved cases of torture in American prison camps, and the price of oil has been constantly rising in the past few years. Hillary Clinton has stated clearly that if she becomes the president, she will end it- "If President Bush does not end the war, when Hillary Clinton is president, she will. ... And today she described how she would bring the war to an end" (Clinton, 2007). Clinton's three-part plan for ending the war includes setting up a gradual redeployment plan, attempting to broker peace between the parties involved in the Iraqi Civil War, and attempting to set up alliances with other nations in the region to help stabilize Iraq. A major problem that is facing the world in the twenty-first century is global warming. Hillary Clinton offers a good plan to slow the progress of global warming. The rate of global warming could accelerate rapidly as positive feedback loops occur. Many citizens are concerned about the effects of global warming, as the process could be extremely destructive to America and the world. The level on concern has been increasing over time-"Most Americans blame emissions from cars and industrial plants as the primary cause of global warming and believe the United States should reduce levels even if other countries don't, a survey shows. Fifty-six percent of poll respondents said the phenomenon of global warming has been proven, and can be largely blamed on human endeavors, such as power plants and factories, according to the CNN/Opinion Research Corp. poll. In comparison, 21 percent of those surveyed claimed global warming problems are caused either by natural changes or are unproven. Sixt y-six percent of Americans believe the United States should do what it can to reduce global warming, even if other nations ignore it. This compares with 52 percent of respondents who believed that way in 2001" ( Poll shows Americans getting more concerned about global warming, 2007). Dependance on foreign oil imports is also a situation that scares many Americans. "Centered on a cap

Wednesday, July 24, 2019

Communications Plan for Semiconductor Systems, Inc Essay

Communications Plan for Semiconductor Systems, Inc - Essay Example The gravity of the situation is very much apparent, that there are three casualties from the substance. This involves death of three people, and should be taken extreme measures to make sure that the crisis will not happen again. Apart from the fatalities, the organization and the public will be concerned about the physiological effects of this chemical agent, that apart from the fatalities, long-term damage to the health of other employees may have resulted in it. The organization should make sure to address this concern as well. Another major concern for the organization, as well as the other stakeholders will be what the incident costs the business. Apart from the monetary costs that entails the incident--pay to the families of the fatalities, the medical check-ups of the people who have been exposed to the chemicals to ensure there are not long-term damage to their health, installation of new security systems and reinforcement of new security measures, payment for publicity costs, etc—there are non-monetary costs to organization as well. This can includes: psychological tension to employees with the prospect of unsafe environment—thus either decreasing morale, productivity, or may result in increase in turnover; damage to brand equity when the news leaks to the public which will result in loss in potential talents, decrease trust in suppliers, customers and other stakeholders, and potential capital flight from investors. Employees are the target public, who are most directly concerned with the incident. Because the safety of the work environment will be a factor in the employees’ morale, productivity—this tension should be first calmed among them. Because of this incident, there will be several versions of the story when it leaks out to the public. Therefore, it is crucial to address this brand crisis and address the reality of what has happened in order to clear out future misconceptions about it. This

Tuesday, July 23, 2019

Personal reflection Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 7

Personal reflection - Essay Example These will increase food production to a great extent that will satisfy a nation’s population. In my thought, a growth in the economy should provide sufficient wealth for the whole population. Mostly, this does not happen because the population the poor grows rapidly and they do not share in the increased industrial expansion. The tragedy of commons is a trap that involves the conflict between resources of individual interests and those of common good. The problem with arising from this measure in managing the human population is the assumption that commons need to be regulated both the international and national agencies. In my thought, it is not entirely possible to control the commons or convert them to private property. In most countries, there does exist a gap between the existing population and what is regarded as the optimal population. Reasons, why countries have sub-optimal population, vary both geographically and historically. Daly suggests that tradable permits are a measure that can be use to control the human population. The allusion to birth rights for income inequality is contrasted. In my opinion, the tradable rights to have children are the only means to manage the human population. Each girl should be given a license to allow her to have, say, two children. Tradable birth rights may be a better measure as couples who have more than two children will risk previous the economic

Monday, July 22, 2019

Othello Essay Example for Free

Othello Essay In Shakespeare’s Othello, we see the protagonist Othello being deceived due to his openness of nature and credulity. When Iago estimates Othello’s character as follows, â€Å"The moor is of a free and open nature, / Those thinks men honest but seem to be so. / And will as tenderly be led by the nose/ As asses are. † (II. i. 387-90). We see that it is this trait of his which strained his relationship with his beloved Desdemona. The great tragedy of Shakespeare, Othello, starts with a marriage which was based on a very strong bond of love between Othello and Desdemona. From the early part of the play itself, it is evident that Othello has a slight feeling about his inferiority in terms of beauty and color. He substantiates this point by telling that instead of loving him for what he is, â€Å"She loved me for the dangers I had pass’d, / And I loved her that she did pity them. † (I. iii. 167-8) We see that throughout the play, Othello is a victim of his own jealousy and Iago’s betrayal. This gives way to a change in attitude towards his lady love- Desdemona. As a result, Desdemona, once the whole world of Othello, became his ‘most loved enemy’ who happened to die by his own hands. Hence we can see that love in their relation reaches the highest point that even the lover’s life is at the disposition of her better half. That too as a victim of suspicious loyalty Desdemona is believed by him to be immersed in an affair with his trusted lieutenant, Cassio. To take advantage of the grains of suspicion in the mind of Othello about Desdemona, Iago sets the stage through her handkerchief. Othello is convinced by Iago that his fears about Desdemona’s disloyalty towards him are beyond doubt by promising that he saw Desdemona’s handkerchief with Cassio: â€Å"By Heaven, that should be my handkerchief† (IV. . 147). It is here that we get the most evident proof of Othello towards his wife as the love for his wife is well conveyed by making it clear that he can not bear to live knowing that his wife has become a whore,: â€Å"Aye, let her rot, and perish, and be damned tonight, for she shall not live. † (IV. i. 168). Thus a man, who was hailed for his royal lineage, his skill for adventure, his most efficient soldiership, his openness of nature and credulity, his modesty, and dignity stoops to the level of a murderer without any second thoughts. He did so because he loved his wife so dearly so that whether he lived or died, whether he maintained his reputation or not, nothing was of importance to him compared to his love for Desdemona. Here their relationship turns out to be ironic for it is difficult for a common man to think that one would murder someone for intense unblemished love. On the other hand, we see Desdemona forgetting her very self out of her self-effacing love and devotion for Othello. She idolized him, as she says: â€Å"I saw Othello’s visage in his mind/ And to his honours and his valiant parts/ Did I my soul and fortunes consecrate. (I. iii. 251-3). When she was charged with infidelity, and that her husband could not have done anything more unkind, she could only protest: â€Å"His unkindness may defeat my life,/ But never taint my love. † (IV. ii. 159-61). Her tactlessness that springs from her purity and innocence was what brought about her death. If she had imbibed the worldly maxims, which Emilia dispensed, she might have averted the disaster. She made a capital blunder in engaging herself to solicit for Cassio. She had not the remotest idea that her action might be misinterpreted. She did not realize it even at the visible displeasure of her lord. A woman of the world would have taken the hint, and pressed no more Cassio’s suit. Iago, in spite of himself, meant but the simple truth when he said, â€Å"She is of so free, so kind, so blessed a disposition, she holds it a vice in her goodness not to do more than she is requested. †(II. iii. 298-9). Not till the last moment did the truth break upon her mind that she had compromised herself by pleading for Cassio. It is the simplicity and purity of Othello and Desdemona, in all means that is exploited by Iago, who was trusted to the utmost by both, especially Othello. Othello’s life was always lived by faith, instead of right. Moreover, he was a man whose nature was passionate and high, generous in thought and ready in action. He considered all that is subtle and devious as dishonor, and as Desdemona understood about him, jealousy and suspicion was foreign to his nature. His life was always identified with his absolute trust in Desdemona. But when a person who was too honest to him throughout and a good friend full of experience, honor, devotion and delicacy to him, exhorted too vehemently that Desdemona is not at all honest to him and that she is having a very passionate love affair with Cassio, his innocence and purity forces him to believe it. Desdemona too is a victim to the darker shades of finer feelings like innocence, purity and simplicity. She is a saint who always stood firm for love, be it to her father or her husband. She firmly believes that there is nothing in this world that cannot be recovered by true love. Her answer concerning the fatal handkerchief, â€Å"It is not lost; but what an if it were? †(II. iv. 79) shows she, most pathetically and with a childlike innocence, endeavors to uphold the truth of her relation to her husband. If she had tried to reply to the accusation she was in, with harsh words, her angelic stature in the minds of those who loved her might have faltered. A close reading of the play substantiates the fact that Othello and Desdemona are the two most innocent people that ever existed. At first their relationship is romantic to the utmost but it takes a profane hue in course of time due to the lack of a perfect foundation for a relationship, by race, color, temper and character and hence we see an absence of trust, understanding and communication between the two. For Othello, the word ‘battle’ is of foremost importance as he was a perfect soldier. We see him telling about himself: Rude am I in my speech, / And little blessd with the soft phrase of peace; / For since these arms of mine had seven years pith, / Till now some nine moons wasted, they have usd/ Their dearest action in the tented field;/ And little of this great world can I speak/ More than pertains to feats of broils and battle. (I. iii. 81-7). In sharp contrast to this, we have Desdemona who is totally inexperienced in the ways of the world. It is Othello’s war stories that infatuate her. Once she identifies his virility and manliness, she is taken aback with a mad love towards him. But it should be debated whether that is a solid base on which a relation should be built on. We see that though she speaks so fondly about him, her understanding about his nature is minimum. She defends her newly born love for Othello, in the following words, (among other things), My downright violence, and storm of fortunes, / May trumpet to the world. My hearts subdud / Even to the very quality of my lord. / I saw Othellos visage in his mind, /†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ soul and fortune consecrate. (I. iii 248-253) Hence the whole play shows forth that it is innocence and purity that laid foundation to the failure of the relation between Othello and Desdemona who was renowned for the purity of love between them crossing all the barriers that were ‘built’ by man. These good qualities, undoubtedly, turned fatal in their all encompassing love. We find Anthony Trollope’s Lady Anna an apt sequel to the relationship presented between Othello and Desdemona. In the above-said novel we have Daniel Thwaite, a tailor and his lover, later wife, Lady Anna, who belongs to the aristocracy. There too we have Frederic instead of Cassio. In both these works we see that the people with whom the ladies are accused of having an illegitimate relation are far better and appropriate than their present spouses. This instills a feeling of inferiority in both the men and that is what takes the garb of jealousy and in course of time their intense love to their better halves become too bitter and lead them to much graver mistakes. Trollope, no doubt had Shakespeare’s Othello in mind, while he was drawing his caricatures of Lady Anna, Thwaite and Frederic to make them sequels to Desdemona, Othello and Cassio respectively.

The Rights of Animals Essay Example for Free

The Rights of Animals Essay When we say that all human beings, referring to both men and women, whatever their race or sex may be are created equal, what is it that we are actually proclaiming? Peter Singer, writer of â€Å"All Animals are Equal† aims to advocate to us as readers to make the mental switch in respect to our attitudes toward a species other than our own. And by this I am referring to animals. R.G Frey takes on a very different position that he expresses in â€Å"Moral Standing, the Value of Lives, and Specieism. † Although there is nothing in his work that has ever suggested that animals don’t count, he disagrees with Singer, in a way, because he does not believe that animals possess moral standing. But first, I would like to discuss Singer’s essay merely due to the fact that there may be a case for a new liberation movement. Singer â€Å"urges that we extend to other species the basic principle of equality that most of us recognize should be extended to all members of our own species (pg. 171).† Many may note or make the connection that the idea of â€Å"the rights of animals† is somewhat of a parody to the case for women’s rights. But some may argue that the case for equality between men and women cannot validly be extended to non-human animals because, for an example, and realistically speaking, women now have the right to vote because they are just as capable of making that decision like men are, whereas animals on the other hand are incapable of understanding the significance of voting so they cannot have that right. Which then brings me back to, what exactly are we declaring when we say all human beings are equal? Because as we know it, we must face the fact that humans come in different shapes and sizes. We each have different moral capacities, different intellectual abilities, different amounts of feeling and sensitivity to others, different abilities to communicate, and different capacities to experience pleasure and pain- all of which are examples Singer discusses. And as a result, if the demand for equality were merely based on the actual equality of human beings, we would have to stop demanding it. â€Å"It would be an unjustifiable demand. (pg. 173)† states Singer. It is unjustifiable to discriminate on the basis of age, sex, or gender because neither of those are a guide to a person’s ability. Singer proposes another important reason as to why we ought not to base our opposition on any kind of factual equality because, â€Å"we can have no guarantee that these abilities an d capacities really are distributed evenly, without regard to race or sex, among human beings (pg. 173).† The most important thing we must consider is that equality is a moral ideal, not a simple assertion of fact. â€Å"The principle of the equality of human beings is not a description of an alleged actual equality among humans: it is a prescription of how we should treat animals (pg. 174).† I strongly agree with Singer here; animals have the capacity to experience pain and suffering just as humans do. Therefore the interests of every being that is being affected by an action should be taken into account and given the same weight as the interests of any other beings, such as animals. At this point, Singer expresses animal testing as what should be a major concern in our society. Singer states that it is simple discrimination. He uses an orphaned human infant for comparison, by suggesting that if the experimenter is not prepared to use this human over his readiness to use a nonhuman being, it is simply a form of discrimination. As far as we can tell, an animal is just as sensitive to pain and any human infant. â€Å"Experimenting on animals, and eating their flesh, are perhaps the two major forms of specieism in our society (pg. 176).† Animals have emotions and desires that allow them to live a good life whether we think so or not. And to that respect, the distinction between humans and animals will be a continuum in which we will move gradually. Frey, on the other hand, has a very different standing on this issue compared to Singer. Frey focuses his essay on the comparative value of human and animal life, taking the notion of autonomy to be central to this issue since autonomy is the source of a huge part of the value of one’s life. ‘Thus, I [Singer] am a restricted vivisectionist, not because I think animals are outside the moral community but because of views I hold about the value of their lives (pg. 193).† The three propositions Frey mentions in his essay are that animal life has some value, not all animal life has the same value, and lastly, human life is more valuable than animal life. Frey calls this claim of the comparative value between human and animal life the unequal value thesis. The unequal value thesis expresses why the value of humans is of more importance than the value of animals. What is missing is the potentiality for enrichment, because lives of less richness have less value. Autonomy plays a vast part of the human case, because by exercising our autonomy one can mold their life to fit the conception our society portrays of what is perceived to be living â€Å"the good life.† â€Å"Thus, by exercising our autonomy and trying to live out some conception of how we want to live, we make possible further, important dimensions of value to our lives (pg. 196).† Although Frey does mention that not all members of the moral community have lives of equal value. In fact, some human lives fall drastically below the quality of normal human life, which would conclude that in some cases a perfectly healthy animal can have a higher quality of life than that of some human, such as ones with mental disabilities for example. But Frey addresses to his readers that the way in which we defend this thesis is a vitally important affair. To discuss the issue of using animals in scientific research as Singer did, he remains a vivisectionist because of the benefits medical and scientific research can present. And it is the unequal value thesis that justifies the use of animals in medical and scientific research. Frey believes that the unequal value thesis is in fact defensible. In conclusion, Frey stresses again that the argument of his essay is not to present animals of having no value, but rather about whether they have lives of equal value to normal human life. Overall, both writers express that animals for in fact have some value to their lives, whether we believe it to be of equal value to humans or of less value is based purely on our moral principles. Works Cited: Lafollette, Hugh, ed. Ethics in Practice. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2007. Print Frey, R.G. â€Å"Moral Standing, the Value of Lives, and Speciesism.† Lafollette 192-204. Singer, Peter. â€Å"All Animals Are Equal.† Lafollette 171-180.

Sunday, July 21, 2019

Revolution in Military Affairs

Revolution in Military Affairs CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION â€Å"The Ultimate Determinant in War is the Man on the Scene with the Gun.† Rear Admiral J. C. Wylie, USN. 1. The notion of military revolutions grew from Soviet writing of the 1970s and 1980s. Early studies talked of a Military Technical Revolution (MTR), which is the impact of a new technology on warfare, but this quickly evolved into the more holistic concept of â€Å"Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA)†, which encompasses the subsequent transformation of operations and organization. Most analysts define a RMA as a discontinuous increase in military capability and effectiveness arising from simultaneous and mutually supportive change in technology, systems, operational methods, and military organizations†[1]. Another definition is, RMA â€Å"is a major change in the nature of warfare brought about by the innovative application of new technologies which, combined with dramatic changes in military doctrine, operational and organizational concepts, fundamentally alters the character and conduct of military operations†[2]. 2. A revolution in military affairs involves big changes that occur relatively quickly and which tend to spread beyond the profession of arms into the realm of foreign policy. Historical examples include the onset of the telegraph and the rail-road in the last century, the changes surrounding in direct artillery fire, motor vehicles (including tanks), and aircraft in the first half of this century, and the advent of nuclear weapons nearly one half century ago. Now, the information revolution has paved the way for the present revolutionary transformations in warfare[3]. 3. Famous futurists like Alvin Toffler and Heidi Toffler have quoted that, â€Å"a military revolution, in its fullest scene, occurs only, when an entire society transforms itself, forcing its armed forces to change at every level simultaneously from technology and culture to organization, strategy, tactics, training, doctrine and logistics†[4]. 4. However a difficulty arises in understanding the current debate over the RMA because some use the term as referring to the revolutionary technology itself that is driving change, while others use the term as referring to revolutionary adaptations by military organizations that may be necessary to deal with the changes in technology or the geopolitical environment, and still others use the term to refer to the revolutionary impact of geopolitical or technological change on the outcome of military conflicts, with specific reference to the political and economic context of globalisation , regardless of the nature of the particular technology or the reaction of the participants to the technological change[5]. The difference in terms of reference leads to different suggested alternatives. 5. The first perspective focuses primarily upon changes in the nation-state and the role of an organised military in using force. This approach highlights the political, social, and economic factors worldwide, which might require a completely different type of military and organisational structure to apply force in the future. Authors such as RANDs Sean J. A. Edwards (advocate of Battle Swarm tactics), Carl H. Builder and Lt. Col. Ralph Peters emphasized the decline of the nation-state, the nature of the emerging international order, and the different types of forces needed in the near future. 6. The second perspective most commonly assigned the term RMA highlights the evolution of weapons technology, information technology, military organization, and military doctrine among advanced powers. This System of Systems perspective on RMA has been ardently supported by Admiral William Owens[6], former Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who identified three overlapping areas for force assets. These are intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance, command, control, communications and intelligence processing, and precision force to enable Dominant Battlefield Knowledge (DBK). Advanced versions of RMA incorporate other sophisticated technologies, including unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), nanotechnology, robotics, and biotechnology. Presently the RMA debate is focussed on network-centric warfare which is a doctrine that aims to connect all troops on the battlefield. 7. Finally, the third concept is that a true revolution in military affairs has not yet occurred or is unlikely to. Authors such as Michael OHanlon and Frederick Kagan, point to the fact much of the technology and weapon systems ascribed to the contemporary RMA were in development long before 1991 and the flashy Internet and information technology boom. Several critics point out that a revolution within the military ranks might carry detrimental consequences, produce severe economic strain, and ultimately prove counterproductive. Such authors tend to profess a much more gradual evolution in military affairs, as opposed a rapid revolution†. 8. Moreover there is also considerable disagreement over the causes[7], the conditions that are necessary for them to occur, their consequences for warfare and the international system more broadly and, of course, over whether a particular development does or does not qualify for the label. Where one draws the line for what counts as an RMA will depend on the restrictiveness or permissiveness of ones definition of the concept. 9. Whatever the interpretation is, an RMA should fundamentally affect strategy and the role of the military in the international system, leading to a qualitative shift in what war is and how it is conducted. It should be a period of great acceleration of change that has far greater consequences than routine revolution, and which therefore demands specific attention. 10. But what is essential is that the ramifications of the RMA need to be understood not only by military officers but also by strategy planners, both military and civil. The military has to contend with information and space warfare, in addition to land, sea and air. The strategy planners, on the other hand, have to consider the economic, political, military and information aspects in their policy and decision making. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY 1. A few of the types of RMAs of importance in the yesteryears and presently in vogue today include combined- system RMAs (a collection of military systems put together in new ways to achieve a revolutionary effect), single-system RMA (single technology, nuclear fission/ fusion, drove the revolution) and an† integrated-system RMA† (various systems, when joined with their accompanying operational and organizational concepts, will become integrated systems). 2. RMAs have risen from various sources, with manybut not allof them technological. Societal change has also contributed to a military revolution during the wars of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era, in which the levee en masse allowed for the creation of larger, national armies. Statement of the Problem 3. To study the likely impact of embracing the ongoing information driven RMA on organizational structure, doctrinal precepts, tactical technological developments and the changes necessitated for effective implementation of this RMA. The lessons learnt by the US Army in this regard will serve as a useful guide. Justification 4. The description of the revolution in military affairs is neither definitive nor conclusive. The discussion is intended primarily to stimulate thinking in unique and more meaningful ways about how warfare in the twenty-first century may be fundamentally different than it is today and, of equal importance, evaluating what we should be doing now to prepare ourselves for that eventuality. 5. A number of changes must occur if any military is going to compete successfully on the battlefields of the future. There must be a change in outlook i.e. change in the way about preparing for the future. The military must nurture an attitude that supports free thinking and accepts honest mistakes, encourages experimentation, rewards risk takers, and makes provisions for starting over. As an organization, the military must break out of the box, consider alternative futures, think the unthinkable and let go of the conventional modes of operation. Statement of Objectives 6. While all concepts proposed by RMA analysts may be relevant, the issue needs deliberation in a more professional manner. That includes even the US by their own admission. The understanding of the various ramifications of RMA by the strategy planners as well as military officers would lead to certain questions: (a) What does RMA mean in the Indian context and what are its practical implications? (b) With RMA powered by the recent explosion in IT and keeping in mind our strength in this field how far ahead can we go and achieve the much-touted concepts of RMA? (c) What national posture do we need to adopt how should our national doctrine be formulated on RMA to include the three services, bureaucrats and other agencies responsible for national security? (d) Is reorganisation of the armed forces essential so as to respond and adapt to the organisational challenge posed by the emergence of Information Technology? Would it really meet the desired effect of flattening the organisation and shortening the various channels of command? (e) What should the pace of conduct of customised training for the Indian Armed Forces in the field of information warfare and operations be? Scope 7. The scope of this dissertation shall be limited to the impact of IT on RMA and changes required in view of the variance in views regarding RMA. The various implications on the Indian Armed Forces especially the army shall be analysed in detail to include various imperatives in the strategic, operational, tactical, administrative, organisational and training realms. Hypothesis 8. The present ongoing RMA has been ushered in by Information Technology. However there are varied views of analysists regarding the changes that would be necessitated for effectively embracing this RMA. This coupled with fixed mindsets has led to problems in effectively embracing the current RMA. In analyzing the changes required in the Indian context lessons can be drawn from the processes employed by the US Army, the first force to take steps in this direction. Limitations of the Research 9. An in-depth research on the subject would need face-to-face interaction with the various authorities in charge of national security i.e. the Armed Forces, bureaucrats, police, paramilitary and intelligence agencies. Owing to constraints limited information has been gained through seminars and discussions. Compulsions of confidentiality have also limited the depth of research. Methods of Data Collection 10. Most of the material has been collected primarily through secondary sources, i.e. various books, periodicals and magazines from the DSSC Library. Tertiary sources like various journals and reviews have also been referred to. Bibliography is attached as appendix. The other major source has been the Internet with the sites accessed listed at the end of bibliography. Organisation of the Dissertation 11. This study has been organised into a number of chapters as under:- (a) Chapter I Introduction. In Chapter I, the importance of understanding the various connotations of RMA has been brought out. (b) Chapter II Methodology. It covers the Statement of the Problem, Scope and Methodology of carrying out research for the dissertation. (c) Chapter III Current RMA Its Impact. This chapter covers the facets on which the current RMA is premised. (d) Chapter IV An Overview of Enablers Required for Initiating/ Implementing RMA. This chapter covers the imperatives for implementing RMA. (e) Chapter V Impact of RMA, Problems Caused Changes Required in Organisational Structure. (f) Chapter V I- Impact of RMA, Problems Caused Changes Required in Technological, Tactical Doctrinal Aspects. (g) Chapter VII- Impact of RMA, Problems Caused Changes Required in Training Aspects. (h) Chapter VIII- Case Study on Implementation of Current RMA by US. (j) Chapter IX- Relevance to India. (k) Chapter X- Conclusion (l) Bibliography. CHAPTER III CURRENT RMA ITS IMPACT 1. The current RMA includes the new tools and processes of waging war like Information Warfare (IW), Network Centric Warfare (NCW), Integrated Command and Control (C4ISR), System of Systems, all powered by IT[8]. The status of information has been raised from being raw material for intelligence to a level where it is now accepted as a tool, or even a new medium for war fighting. Information superiority has led to attainment of decision superiority. The lethality of information power is like any other power. Op Iraqi Freedom launched on 19 March 2003 was a major success essentially due to receipt of information in a short time frame. Establishing information dominance over ones adversary will become a major focus of the operational art[9] in the future. 2. The United States has led and maintains a significant advantage in the development of information- based technologies. This advantage is well grounded in U.S. military capabilities[10]. The roots of the U.S. militarys information-based RMA have been decades in the making. As information-based technologies and capabilities continue to mature, they have become much less expensive, and by their very nature, can be rapidly incorporated by other military forces to enhance their capabilities. 3. Information superiority consists of the integration of offensive and defensive information operations. Improved intelligence collection and assessment, as well as modern information processing and command and control capabilities, are at the heart of the current RMA[11]. With such enhanced capabilities nations will be able to respond rapidly to any conflict. Forces will achieve a state of information superiority, in near real-time, which will be pervasive across the full spectrum of military operations, enabling the force commander to dominate any situation. Velocity of battles would be speeded up causing a collapse of enemys command and control structures causing a rout essentially due to shortening of own OODA loop[12]. 4. The capabilities of the present RMA have yielded transformation of weapon systems, military organizations and operations through the integration of Information Technologies. When information technologies are integrated into a coherent system that includes modern weapon systems operated by highly trained personnel, they provide force multipliers to military formations[13], allowing them to perform more complex manoeuvres, to fire accurately at longer range and to experience a higher degree of situational awareness compared to their opponents. Information warfare can be anything from striking headquarters or communications systems with conventional weapons, hacking computer systems, conducting propaganda and psychological operations, or even to committing atrocities to instill panic in the enemys population. Dynamics of the Current RMA. 5. The current RMA is driven by three primary factors[14] i.e. rapid technological advance compelling a shift from the Industrial Age to the Information Age, the end of the Cold War and a decline in defence budgets. The transition is forcing a change in the way the military services are organized, how they are supplied, how they procure weapons and how they are managed, and, most importantly, how they think and fight. The extent to which the U S Armed Forces have accepted these changes, however, has been remarkable, particularly given that the draw downs, relocations, reorganizations and other fundamental alterations to the way they operate began immediately following a victory of immense proportions in the Gulf War; a victory which confirmed the tremendous progress made in rebuilding the services, especially the Army, after the Vietnam War. The Army is not only restructuring as it downsizes, it also is changing the very way it thinks about war. 6. The development of computers, satellites, and imagery has been occurring at an astounding rate, and there is no indication that this will slow down in the foreseeable future. The inference is that the future military will expand the ability to collect, evaluate and disseminate information relevant to the battlefield at a rate far greater than now. According to Libicki, future precision strike capabilities will mean that, to be seen on the battlefield is to be killed†. 7. Gen Shalikashral of the US Army realising the current RMAs importance gave the concept of â€Å"Joint Force 2010†[15]. This concept is basically aimed at giving a frame work for the application of RMA by US forces by 2010 to achieve â€Å"Full Spectrum Dominance† or total dominance. This concept is based on four pillars:- (a) Dominant Manoeuvre. It implies an operation from various dispersed points all focusing on one target. Dominating manoeuvre will deploy the right forces at the right time and place to cause the enemys psychological collapse and complete capitulation. (b) Precision Engagement. This means the engagement of the target with extreme precision by PGMs from land or sea platforms. For this accurate data collection about the target is very important to make the engagement effective. (c) Full Dimensional Protection. This is the ability to protect the forces including plans from any damage. This enhances the scope of what has to be protected. (d) Focussed Logistics. It means reducing the logistic load to only the essential requirement in shortest possible time, at the fastest speed and in the correct quantity. The RMA also enables to calculate precisely what is required, how much is required and where required. 8. The current rate of change suggests that state of the art in any technological context will be an extremely short-lived phenomenon[16], particularly with respect to the technologies that were key to the success of Desert Storm including space systems, telecommunications systems, computer architectures, global information distribution networks, and navigation systems. Future revolutions will occur much more rapidly, offering far less time for adaptation to new methods of warfare. The growing imperative in the business world for rapid response to changing conditions in order to survive in an intensely competitive environment is surely instructive for military affairs. Corporations repeatedly have to make major changes in strategy to accommodate the full implications of technologies, which have already existed many years. 9. Exploiting the Information Age. The armed forces must develop the essential competences in personnel to exploit new technologies and systems to the full and to ensure that leaders have the right skills to deliver and integrate information projects successfully. To help meet these requirements, there is a need to develop information age skills for everyone joining the armed forces. Efforts should also be made to increase opportunities [17] for personnel already serving besides increasing IT awareness training during initial training. 10. Many analysts agree on one important fact that the current revolution in military affairs seems to have at least two stages[18]. In the drive to limit military casualties, stand-off platforms, stealth, precision, information dominance, and missile defence are the first stage. The second may be robotics, nonlethality, pyschotechnology, and elaborate cyber defence. The revolution in military affairs may see the transition from concern with centres of gravity to a less mechanistic and more sophisticated notion of interlinked systems. 11. The armed forces no longer have to request scientists to develop a specific technology for possible military use. Quite likely, it will be the scientists who would be chasing military planners prodding them to use technologies that can now be converted to weapons much quicker than before through computer simulation, cutting development and production cycles dramatically[19]. CHAPTER IV An Overview of Enablers Required for INITIATING/ Implementing RMA 1. An analysis gives rise to the three dimensions of the RMA required for a nation to effectively implement it. First is the conscious decision on the part of a state to acquire all or portions of what might be termed an RMA complex. Second is the ability to acquire or develop the systems that constitute RMA-type technologies. Last, and perhaps most important, is the ability, organizationally and operationally, to adapt technologies in ways that bring into being the full military potential of an RMA. 2. Even though the revolution in military affairs has attracted some brilliant thinkers, systematic strategic discourse remains rare. Except for Andrew Krepinevich[20] and Jeffrey Cooper, few writers have attempted to place the current RMA in its broader theoretic and historic context. Moreover, the fact of change may be most dramatically manifested in combat, but historically the most profound RMAs are peacetime phenomena. Militaries are driven to innovate during peacetime by the need to make more efficient use of shrinking resources, by reacting to major changes in the security environment[21]. 3. Both the Tofflers, who identify only two historical military revolutions, and Krepinevich, who distinguishes ten since the 14th century, are suggestive of implementing RMA through major and minor revolutions in military affairs as under:- (a) Minor Revolutions. Minor revolutions in military affairs tend to be initiated by individual technological or social changes, occur in relatively short periods (less than a decade), and have their greatest direct impact on the battlefield. Minor revolutions in military affairs can be deliberately shaped and controlled. A minor revolution in military affairs driven by military applications of silicon-chip technology is already underway and the next minor revolution will be driven by robotics and psycho technology. (b) Major Revolutions[22]. Major revolutions in military affairs are the result of combined multiple technological, economic, social, cultural and/or military changes, usually occur over relatively long periods (greater that a decade), and have direct impact on strategy. Major revolutions cannot be deliberately shaped and controlled. The world is potentially at the beginning of one. 4. Enablers for revolutions in military affairs appear to follow a cyclical pattern with initial stasis followed by initiation, critical mass, consolidation, response, and return to stasis. Revolutions in military affairs can be initiated by one breakthrough power or by a group. In the modern security system, revolutions in military affairs are usually inspired by outright defeat or by a perception of inferiority or decline versus a peer or niche opponent. Revolutions in military affairs have a point of critical mass when changes in concepts, organizations, and technology meld. Once recognized, every revolutionary breakthrough generates responses. Responses to revolutions in military affairs can be symmetric or asymmetric; asymmetric responses may be more difficult to counter. 5. The greatest advantage for the breakthrough power lies in the period immediately following critical mass; thus, there may be a temptation to initiate conflict before responses can be effective. All revolutions in military affairs have a culminating point [23], at which innovation and change slow or stop, determined by the interaction between the revolutionary breakthrough and the responses, followed by a consolidation phase This may occur when leaders become satisfied with the military balance and will no longer risk radical change. It may also occur when costs of change are thought to outweigh the benefits of further expenditure. During the consolidation phase, superior training and leadership may be the only ways to achieve superior relative combat effectiveness against symmetric responses. 6. At times, a single state can initiate revolution by recognizing how to effectively combine various evolutionary developments, new ideas, and technology. Napoleonic France and the Mongols of Genghis Khan were examples of single state breakthroughs. At other times, there can be a collective breakthrough as when the European powers of the mid-19th to early 20th centuries combined industrialization, railroads, improved metallurgy and explosives, the telegraph, barbed wire, concrete, improved methods of government funding, nationalism, breech loading, rifled artillery and small arms, steam-driven, armoured ships, internal combustion engines, radio, increased literacy and public health, improved explosives, and the machine gun. 7. Always, though, the essence of the revolution is not the invention of new technology, but discovery of innovative ways to organize, operate, and employ new technology. Revolutions in military affairs begin when the potential latent in technological, conceptual, political, economic, social, and organizational changes that have occurred or are occurring is recognized and converted to augment combat effectiveness. In pre-modern, heterogeneous security systems, revolution was often initiated by states outside the system or on its periphery. Sometimes their advantage accrued from superior morale, training, organization, leadership, strategy, or tactics. 8. In the modern, communications-intensive security system, revolutions in military affairs have most frequently been initiated by a state within the system[24]. This is because fundamental change of any kind is difficult, even frightening; those who unleash revolution never know exactly where it will take them. Uncertainty as to the eventual outcome means that political and military leaders satisfied with their states security situation will seldom run the risks of revolution. Usually, then, only real or imagined danger can provide the spark. 9. Initiation of a revolution requires revolutionaries. RMAs are led by armed forces that tolerate and, at the appropriate time, empower visionaries. The decision to do this is a vital juncture in military revolutions. In the past, only a peer competitor could offer enough of a threat to empower military visionaries and dispel the miasma of inertia and petrified thinking. This may be changing. The military role in implementing innovative ideas is crucial. As one observer noted, â€Å"many important wartime technical innovations such as the tank, proximity fuse, and microwave radar, and organizational innovations such as new doctrines for submarine warfare and strategic targeting functions for American bombers, were pursued at the initiative of military officers or with their vigorous support.† What may be key to â€Å"winning the innovation battle† is a professional military climate, which fosters thinking in unconstrained fashion about future war. The other critical re quirement is the ability and willingness of relatively junior officers who are now out in the field and fleet to think about the future. They are likely to be in closer touch with new and emerging technologies, which have potential military application. As operators, they are aware of the operational and organizational problems that they must deal with daily and hence are prime clients for possible solutions[25]. Further, an offensive concept is vital for the implementation of RMA. 10. The most successful revolutionary states turn military advantage into economic and political dominance, but the transition is difficult. Being the first to understand or implement a RMA does not guarantee even military victory. A breakthrough state or coalition which clearly understands the RMA but which fails to develop an appropriate, balanced, strategy can-and usually will-lose to a state or coalition, which lags in understanding but possesses superior strategic prowess[26]. History is littered with breakthrough military states which ultimately failed, whether those of Genghis Khan, Napoleon Bonaparte, or Imperial and Nazi Germany. 11. The course of the current RMA is not preordained. Key policy decisions made now will both affect the pace of revolution and the shape of the 21st century force that emerges from it. Perhaps the most fundamental choice of all concerns the enthusiasm with which developed nations should pursue the current minor RMA and the extent to which it should shape force development. Often this is not even considered due to the traditional approach to technology. Technology is respected, almost deified. There are sound historical reasons for this. During its formative period, many nations suffered from chronic shortages of skilled labour, thus forcing reliance on labour-saving technology. Eli Whitney, Robert Fulton, Thomas Edison, Henry Ford and thousands of other entrepreneurs and inventors harnessed technology in the name of efficiency. Reflecting this legacy, many nations have often evinced an unreflective trust in the ultimate benefit of technology. However, a reasonable case can be made that too vigorous pursuit of the current minor RMA is undesirable or dangerous, that the costs and risks outweigh the expected benefits. Budget constraints and the changing nature of global presence provide the broad context within which redesign of any military will unfold. However, it is to the technological factor, in the present era that basic judgments about force structure changes are attributed to[27]. 12. The utility of the current RMA[28], with its stress on precision, standoff strikes, falls off dramatically toward the poles of the military/technology spectrum. Opponents at the low end of the spectrum tend to operate in widely dispersed fashion and emit a limited electronic signature, thus complicating targeting. Their organization is often cellular, making decapitation difficult. If they are insurgents, they intermingle with the population. It is also important for successful implementation of RMA, the organizational enabler i.e. all important commanders, must be ingrained in military doctrine and practice failing which the RMA is not guaranteed to take hold throughout todays defense organizations. Second, unless the rational basis for the strategy is translated into an overarching vision, the RMA faces obstacles in the form of powerful, change-resistant bureaucratic forces[29]. 13. Enablers for RMA [30] need to be constantly viewed under the effect of the following:- (a) The political context. This is the breeding ground of war, and hence warfare. (b) The strategic context. The strategic context expresses the relationship between political demand and military supply, keyed to the particular tasks specific to a conflict. (c) The social-cultural context. Social-cultural trends are likely to prove more revealing at an early stage of the prospects for revolutionary change in warfare than missile tests, defense contracts, military maneuvers, or even, possibly, and some limited demonstration of a novel prowess in combat. (d) The economic context. Though wars are rarely waged for economic reasons, warfare is economic behaviour, interalia, just as it is, and has to be, logistical behaviour also. (e) The technological context. Warfare always has a technological context, but that context is not always the principal fuel for revolutionary change. (f) The geographical context. Military revolution keyed to the emerging exploitation of a new geographical environment has beckoned both the visionary theorist and the bold military professional. Imperatives for Effective Implementation of RMA[31] 14. Certain desirable features for implementation of RMA are:- (a) Design of a RMA force structure that would effectively use technology. (b) Technological development Revolution in Military Affairs Revolution in Military Affairs CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION â€Å"The Ultimate Determinant in War is the Man on the Scene with the Gun.† Rear Admiral J. C. Wylie, USN. 1. The notion of military revolutions grew from Soviet writing of the 1970s and 1980s. Early studies talked of a Military Technical Revolution (MTR), which is the impact of a new technology on warfare, but this quickly evolved into the more holistic concept of â€Å"Revolution in Military Affairs (RMA)†, which encompasses the subsequent transformation of operations and organization. Most analysts define a RMA as a discontinuous increase in military capability and effectiveness arising from simultaneous and mutually supportive change in technology, systems, operational methods, and military organizations†[1]. Another definition is, RMA â€Å"is a major change in the nature of warfare brought about by the innovative application of new technologies which, combined with dramatic changes in military doctrine, operational and organizational concepts, fundamentally alters the character and conduct of military operations†[2]. 2. A revolution in military affairs involves big changes that occur relatively quickly and which tend to spread beyond the profession of arms into the realm of foreign policy. Historical examples include the onset of the telegraph and the rail-road in the last century, the changes surrounding in direct artillery fire, motor vehicles (including tanks), and aircraft in the first half of this century, and the advent of nuclear weapons nearly one half century ago. Now, the information revolution has paved the way for the present revolutionary transformations in warfare[3]. 3. Famous futurists like Alvin Toffler and Heidi Toffler have quoted that, â€Å"a military revolution, in its fullest scene, occurs only, when an entire society transforms itself, forcing its armed forces to change at every level simultaneously from technology and culture to organization, strategy, tactics, training, doctrine and logistics†[4]. 4. However a difficulty arises in understanding the current debate over the RMA because some use the term as referring to the revolutionary technology itself that is driving change, while others use the term as referring to revolutionary adaptations by military organizations that may be necessary to deal with the changes in technology or the geopolitical environment, and still others use the term to refer to the revolutionary impact of geopolitical or technological change on the outcome of military conflicts, with specific reference to the political and economic context of globalisation , regardless of the nature of the particular technology or the reaction of the participants to the technological change[5]. The difference in terms of reference leads to different suggested alternatives. 5. The first perspective focuses primarily upon changes in the nation-state and the role of an organised military in using force. This approach highlights the political, social, and economic factors worldwide, which might require a completely different type of military and organisational structure to apply force in the future. Authors such as RANDs Sean J. A. Edwards (advocate of Battle Swarm tactics), Carl H. Builder and Lt. Col. Ralph Peters emphasized the decline of the nation-state, the nature of the emerging international order, and the different types of forces needed in the near future. 6. The second perspective most commonly assigned the term RMA highlights the evolution of weapons technology, information technology, military organization, and military doctrine among advanced powers. This System of Systems perspective on RMA has been ardently supported by Admiral William Owens[6], former Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who identified three overlapping areas for force assets. These are intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance, command, control, communications and intelligence processing, and precision force to enable Dominant Battlefield Knowledge (DBK). Advanced versions of RMA incorporate other sophisticated technologies, including unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), nanotechnology, robotics, and biotechnology. Presently the RMA debate is focussed on network-centric warfare which is a doctrine that aims to connect all troops on the battlefield. 7. Finally, the third concept is that a true revolution in military affairs has not yet occurred or is unlikely to. Authors such as Michael OHanlon and Frederick Kagan, point to the fact much of the technology and weapon systems ascribed to the contemporary RMA were in development long before 1991 and the flashy Internet and information technology boom. Several critics point out that a revolution within the military ranks might carry detrimental consequences, produce severe economic strain, and ultimately prove counterproductive. Such authors tend to profess a much more gradual evolution in military affairs, as opposed a rapid revolution†. 8. Moreover there is also considerable disagreement over the causes[7], the conditions that are necessary for them to occur, their consequences for warfare and the international system more broadly and, of course, over whether a particular development does or does not qualify for the label. Where one draws the line for what counts as an RMA will depend on the restrictiveness or permissiveness of ones definition of the concept. 9. Whatever the interpretation is, an RMA should fundamentally affect strategy and the role of the military in the international system, leading to a qualitative shift in what war is and how it is conducted. It should be a period of great acceleration of change that has far greater consequences than routine revolution, and which therefore demands specific attention. 10. But what is essential is that the ramifications of the RMA need to be understood not only by military officers but also by strategy planners, both military and civil. The military has to contend with information and space warfare, in addition to land, sea and air. The strategy planners, on the other hand, have to consider the economic, political, military and information aspects in their policy and decision making. CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY 1. A few of the types of RMAs of importance in the yesteryears and presently in vogue today include combined- system RMAs (a collection of military systems put together in new ways to achieve a revolutionary effect), single-system RMA (single technology, nuclear fission/ fusion, drove the revolution) and an† integrated-system RMA† (various systems, when joined with their accompanying operational and organizational concepts, will become integrated systems). 2. RMAs have risen from various sources, with manybut not allof them technological. Societal change has also contributed to a military revolution during the wars of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era, in which the levee en masse allowed for the creation of larger, national armies. Statement of the Problem 3. To study the likely impact of embracing the ongoing information driven RMA on organizational structure, doctrinal precepts, tactical technological developments and the changes necessitated for effective implementation of this RMA. The lessons learnt by the US Army in this regard will serve as a useful guide. Justification 4. The description of the revolution in military affairs is neither definitive nor conclusive. The discussion is intended primarily to stimulate thinking in unique and more meaningful ways about how warfare in the twenty-first century may be fundamentally different than it is today and, of equal importance, evaluating what we should be doing now to prepare ourselves for that eventuality. 5. A number of changes must occur if any military is going to compete successfully on the battlefields of the future. There must be a change in outlook i.e. change in the way about preparing for the future. The military must nurture an attitude that supports free thinking and accepts honest mistakes, encourages experimentation, rewards risk takers, and makes provisions for starting over. As an organization, the military must break out of the box, consider alternative futures, think the unthinkable and let go of the conventional modes of operation. Statement of Objectives 6. While all concepts proposed by RMA analysts may be relevant, the issue needs deliberation in a more professional manner. That includes even the US by their own admission. The understanding of the various ramifications of RMA by the strategy planners as well as military officers would lead to certain questions: (a) What does RMA mean in the Indian context and what are its practical implications? (b) With RMA powered by the recent explosion in IT and keeping in mind our strength in this field how far ahead can we go and achieve the much-touted concepts of RMA? (c) What national posture do we need to adopt how should our national doctrine be formulated on RMA to include the three services, bureaucrats and other agencies responsible for national security? (d) Is reorganisation of the armed forces essential so as to respond and adapt to the organisational challenge posed by the emergence of Information Technology? Would it really meet the desired effect of flattening the organisation and shortening the various channels of command? (e) What should the pace of conduct of customised training for the Indian Armed Forces in the field of information warfare and operations be? Scope 7. The scope of this dissertation shall be limited to the impact of IT on RMA and changes required in view of the variance in views regarding RMA. The various implications on the Indian Armed Forces especially the army shall be analysed in detail to include various imperatives in the strategic, operational, tactical, administrative, organisational and training realms. Hypothesis 8. The present ongoing RMA has been ushered in by Information Technology. However there are varied views of analysists regarding the changes that would be necessitated for effectively embracing this RMA. This coupled with fixed mindsets has led to problems in effectively embracing the current RMA. In analyzing the changes required in the Indian context lessons can be drawn from the processes employed by the US Army, the first force to take steps in this direction. Limitations of the Research 9. An in-depth research on the subject would need face-to-face interaction with the various authorities in charge of national security i.e. the Armed Forces, bureaucrats, police, paramilitary and intelligence agencies. Owing to constraints limited information has been gained through seminars and discussions. Compulsions of confidentiality have also limited the depth of research. Methods of Data Collection 10. Most of the material has been collected primarily through secondary sources, i.e. various books, periodicals and magazines from the DSSC Library. Tertiary sources like various journals and reviews have also been referred to. Bibliography is attached as appendix. The other major source has been the Internet with the sites accessed listed at the end of bibliography. Organisation of the Dissertation 11. This study has been organised into a number of chapters as under:- (a) Chapter I Introduction. In Chapter I, the importance of understanding the various connotations of RMA has been brought out. (b) Chapter II Methodology. It covers the Statement of the Problem, Scope and Methodology of carrying out research for the dissertation. (c) Chapter III Current RMA Its Impact. This chapter covers the facets on which the current RMA is premised. (d) Chapter IV An Overview of Enablers Required for Initiating/ Implementing RMA. This chapter covers the imperatives for implementing RMA. (e) Chapter V Impact of RMA, Problems Caused Changes Required in Organisational Structure. (f) Chapter V I- Impact of RMA, Problems Caused Changes Required in Technological, Tactical Doctrinal Aspects. (g) Chapter VII- Impact of RMA, Problems Caused Changes Required in Training Aspects. (h) Chapter VIII- Case Study on Implementation of Current RMA by US. (j) Chapter IX- Relevance to India. (k) Chapter X- Conclusion (l) Bibliography. CHAPTER III CURRENT RMA ITS IMPACT 1. The current RMA includes the new tools and processes of waging war like Information Warfare (IW), Network Centric Warfare (NCW), Integrated Command and Control (C4ISR), System of Systems, all powered by IT[8]. The status of information has been raised from being raw material for intelligence to a level where it is now accepted as a tool, or even a new medium for war fighting. Information superiority has led to attainment of decision superiority. The lethality of information power is like any other power. Op Iraqi Freedom launched on 19 March 2003 was a major success essentially due to receipt of information in a short time frame. Establishing information dominance over ones adversary will become a major focus of the operational art[9] in the future. 2. The United States has led and maintains a significant advantage in the development of information- based technologies. This advantage is well grounded in U.S. military capabilities[10]. The roots of the U.S. militarys information-based RMA have been decades in the making. As information-based technologies and capabilities continue to mature, they have become much less expensive, and by their very nature, can be rapidly incorporated by other military forces to enhance their capabilities. 3. Information superiority consists of the integration of offensive and defensive information operations. Improved intelligence collection and assessment, as well as modern information processing and command and control capabilities, are at the heart of the current RMA[11]. With such enhanced capabilities nations will be able to respond rapidly to any conflict. Forces will achieve a state of information superiority, in near real-time, which will be pervasive across the full spectrum of military operations, enabling the force commander to dominate any situation. Velocity of battles would be speeded up causing a collapse of enemys command and control structures causing a rout essentially due to shortening of own OODA loop[12]. 4. The capabilities of the present RMA have yielded transformation of weapon systems, military organizations and operations through the integration of Information Technologies. When information technologies are integrated into a coherent system that includes modern weapon systems operated by highly trained personnel, they provide force multipliers to military formations[13], allowing them to perform more complex manoeuvres, to fire accurately at longer range and to experience a higher degree of situational awareness compared to their opponents. Information warfare can be anything from striking headquarters or communications systems with conventional weapons, hacking computer systems, conducting propaganda and psychological operations, or even to committing atrocities to instill panic in the enemys population. Dynamics of the Current RMA. 5. The current RMA is driven by three primary factors[14] i.e. rapid technological advance compelling a shift from the Industrial Age to the Information Age, the end of the Cold War and a decline in defence budgets. The transition is forcing a change in the way the military services are organized, how they are supplied, how they procure weapons and how they are managed, and, most importantly, how they think and fight. The extent to which the U S Armed Forces have accepted these changes, however, has been remarkable, particularly given that the draw downs, relocations, reorganizations and other fundamental alterations to the way they operate began immediately following a victory of immense proportions in the Gulf War; a victory which confirmed the tremendous progress made in rebuilding the services, especially the Army, after the Vietnam War. The Army is not only restructuring as it downsizes, it also is changing the very way it thinks about war. 6. The development of computers, satellites, and imagery has been occurring at an astounding rate, and there is no indication that this will slow down in the foreseeable future. The inference is that the future military will expand the ability to collect, evaluate and disseminate information relevant to the battlefield at a rate far greater than now. According to Libicki, future precision strike capabilities will mean that, to be seen on the battlefield is to be killed†. 7. Gen Shalikashral of the US Army realising the current RMAs importance gave the concept of â€Å"Joint Force 2010†[15]. This concept is basically aimed at giving a frame work for the application of RMA by US forces by 2010 to achieve â€Å"Full Spectrum Dominance† or total dominance. This concept is based on four pillars:- (a) Dominant Manoeuvre. It implies an operation from various dispersed points all focusing on one target. Dominating manoeuvre will deploy the right forces at the right time and place to cause the enemys psychological collapse and complete capitulation. (b) Precision Engagement. This means the engagement of the target with extreme precision by PGMs from land or sea platforms. For this accurate data collection about the target is very important to make the engagement effective. (c) Full Dimensional Protection. This is the ability to protect the forces including plans from any damage. This enhances the scope of what has to be protected. (d) Focussed Logistics. It means reducing the logistic load to only the essential requirement in shortest possible time, at the fastest speed and in the correct quantity. The RMA also enables to calculate precisely what is required, how much is required and where required. 8. The current rate of change suggests that state of the art in any technological context will be an extremely short-lived phenomenon[16], particularly with respect to the technologies that were key to the success of Desert Storm including space systems, telecommunications systems, computer architectures, global information distribution networks, and navigation systems. Future revolutions will occur much more rapidly, offering far less time for adaptation to new methods of warfare. The growing imperative in the business world for rapid response to changing conditions in order to survive in an intensely competitive environment is surely instructive for military affairs. Corporations repeatedly have to make major changes in strategy to accommodate the full implications of technologies, which have already existed many years. 9. Exploiting the Information Age. The armed forces must develop the essential competences in personnel to exploit new technologies and systems to the full and to ensure that leaders have the right skills to deliver and integrate information projects successfully. To help meet these requirements, there is a need to develop information age skills for everyone joining the armed forces. Efforts should also be made to increase opportunities [17] for personnel already serving besides increasing IT awareness training during initial training. 10. Many analysts agree on one important fact that the current revolution in military affairs seems to have at least two stages[18]. In the drive to limit military casualties, stand-off platforms, stealth, precision, information dominance, and missile defence are the first stage. The second may be robotics, nonlethality, pyschotechnology, and elaborate cyber defence. The revolution in military affairs may see the transition from concern with centres of gravity to a less mechanistic and more sophisticated notion of interlinked systems. 11. The armed forces no longer have to request scientists to develop a specific technology for possible military use. Quite likely, it will be the scientists who would be chasing military planners prodding them to use technologies that can now be converted to weapons much quicker than before through computer simulation, cutting development and production cycles dramatically[19]. CHAPTER IV An Overview of Enablers Required for INITIATING/ Implementing RMA 1. An analysis gives rise to the three dimensions of the RMA required for a nation to effectively implement it. First is the conscious decision on the part of a state to acquire all or portions of what might be termed an RMA complex. Second is the ability to acquire or develop the systems that constitute RMA-type technologies. Last, and perhaps most important, is the ability, organizationally and operationally, to adapt technologies in ways that bring into being the full military potential of an RMA. 2. Even though the revolution in military affairs has attracted some brilliant thinkers, systematic strategic discourse remains rare. Except for Andrew Krepinevich[20] and Jeffrey Cooper, few writers have attempted to place the current RMA in its broader theoretic and historic context. Moreover, the fact of change may be most dramatically manifested in combat, but historically the most profound RMAs are peacetime phenomena. Militaries are driven to innovate during peacetime by the need to make more efficient use of shrinking resources, by reacting to major changes in the security environment[21]. 3. Both the Tofflers, who identify only two historical military revolutions, and Krepinevich, who distinguishes ten since the 14th century, are suggestive of implementing RMA through major and minor revolutions in military affairs as under:- (a) Minor Revolutions. Minor revolutions in military affairs tend to be initiated by individual technological or social changes, occur in relatively short periods (less than a decade), and have their greatest direct impact on the battlefield. Minor revolutions in military affairs can be deliberately shaped and controlled. A minor revolution in military affairs driven by military applications of silicon-chip technology is already underway and the next minor revolution will be driven by robotics and psycho technology. (b) Major Revolutions[22]. Major revolutions in military affairs are the result of combined multiple technological, economic, social, cultural and/or military changes, usually occur over relatively long periods (greater that a decade), and have direct impact on strategy. Major revolutions cannot be deliberately shaped and controlled. The world is potentially at the beginning of one. 4. Enablers for revolutions in military affairs appear to follow a cyclical pattern with initial stasis followed by initiation, critical mass, consolidation, response, and return to stasis. Revolutions in military affairs can be initiated by one breakthrough power or by a group. In the modern security system, revolutions in military affairs are usually inspired by outright defeat or by a perception of inferiority or decline versus a peer or niche opponent. Revolutions in military affairs have a point of critical mass when changes in concepts, organizations, and technology meld. Once recognized, every revolutionary breakthrough generates responses. Responses to revolutions in military affairs can be symmetric or asymmetric; asymmetric responses may be more difficult to counter. 5. The greatest advantage for the breakthrough power lies in the period immediately following critical mass; thus, there may be a temptation to initiate conflict before responses can be effective. All revolutions in military affairs have a culminating point [23], at which innovation and change slow or stop, determined by the interaction between the revolutionary breakthrough and the responses, followed by a consolidation phase This may occur when leaders become satisfied with the military balance and will no longer risk radical change. It may also occur when costs of change are thought to outweigh the benefits of further expenditure. During the consolidation phase, superior training and leadership may be the only ways to achieve superior relative combat effectiveness against symmetric responses. 6. At times, a single state can initiate revolution by recognizing how to effectively combine various evolutionary developments, new ideas, and technology. Napoleonic France and the Mongols of Genghis Khan were examples of single state breakthroughs. At other times, there can be a collective breakthrough as when the European powers of the mid-19th to early 20th centuries combined industrialization, railroads, improved metallurgy and explosives, the telegraph, barbed wire, concrete, improved methods of government funding, nationalism, breech loading, rifled artillery and small arms, steam-driven, armoured ships, internal combustion engines, radio, increased literacy and public health, improved explosives, and the machine gun. 7. Always, though, the essence of the revolution is not the invention of new technology, but discovery of innovative ways to organize, operate, and employ new technology. Revolutions in military affairs begin when the potential latent in technological, conceptual, political, economic, social, and organizational changes that have occurred or are occurring is recognized and converted to augment combat effectiveness. In pre-modern, heterogeneous security systems, revolution was often initiated by states outside the system or on its periphery. Sometimes their advantage accrued from superior morale, training, organization, leadership, strategy, or tactics. 8. In the modern, communications-intensive security system, revolutions in military affairs have most frequently been initiated by a state within the system[24]. This is because fundamental change of any kind is difficult, even frightening; those who unleash revolution never know exactly where it will take them. Uncertainty as to the eventual outcome means that political and military leaders satisfied with their states security situation will seldom run the risks of revolution. Usually, then, only real or imagined danger can provide the spark. 9. Initiation of a revolution requires revolutionaries. RMAs are led by armed forces that tolerate and, at the appropriate time, empower visionaries. The decision to do this is a vital juncture in military revolutions. In the past, only a peer competitor could offer enough of a threat to empower military visionaries and dispel the miasma of inertia and petrified thinking. This may be changing. The military role in implementing innovative ideas is crucial. As one observer noted, â€Å"many important wartime technical innovations such as the tank, proximity fuse, and microwave radar, and organizational innovations such as new doctrines for submarine warfare and strategic targeting functions for American bombers, were pursued at the initiative of military officers or with their vigorous support.† What may be key to â€Å"winning the innovation battle† is a professional military climate, which fosters thinking in unconstrained fashion about future war. The other critical re quirement is the ability and willingness of relatively junior officers who are now out in the field and fleet to think about the future. They are likely to be in closer touch with new and emerging technologies, which have potential military application. As operators, they are aware of the operational and organizational problems that they must deal with daily and hence are prime clients for possible solutions[25]. Further, an offensive concept is vital for the implementation of RMA. 10. The most successful revolutionary states turn military advantage into economic and political dominance, but the transition is difficult. Being the first to understand or implement a RMA does not guarantee even military victory. A breakthrough state or coalition which clearly understands the RMA but which fails to develop an appropriate, balanced, strategy can-and usually will-lose to a state or coalition, which lags in understanding but possesses superior strategic prowess[26]. History is littered with breakthrough military states which ultimately failed, whether those of Genghis Khan, Napoleon Bonaparte, or Imperial and Nazi Germany. 11. The course of the current RMA is not preordained. Key policy decisions made now will both affect the pace of revolution and the shape of the 21st century force that emerges from it. Perhaps the most fundamental choice of all concerns the enthusiasm with which developed nations should pursue the current minor RMA and the extent to which it should shape force development. Often this is not even considered due to the traditional approach to technology. Technology is respected, almost deified. There are sound historical reasons for this. During its formative period, many nations suffered from chronic shortages of skilled labour, thus forcing reliance on labour-saving technology. Eli Whitney, Robert Fulton, Thomas Edison, Henry Ford and thousands of other entrepreneurs and inventors harnessed technology in the name of efficiency. Reflecting this legacy, many nations have often evinced an unreflective trust in the ultimate benefit of technology. However, a reasonable case can be made that too vigorous pursuit of the current minor RMA is undesirable or dangerous, that the costs and risks outweigh the expected benefits. Budget constraints and the changing nature of global presence provide the broad context within which redesign of any military will unfold. However, it is to the technological factor, in the present era that basic judgments about force structure changes are attributed to[27]. 12. The utility of the current RMA[28], with its stress on precision, standoff strikes, falls off dramatically toward the poles of the military/technology spectrum. Opponents at the low end of the spectrum tend to operate in widely dispersed fashion and emit a limited electronic signature, thus complicating targeting. Their organization is often cellular, making decapitation difficult. If they are insurgents, they intermingle with the population. It is also important for successful implementation of RMA, the organizational enabler i.e. all important commanders, must be ingrained in military doctrine and practice failing which the RMA is not guaranteed to take hold throughout todays defense organizations. Second, unless the rational basis for the strategy is translated into an overarching vision, the RMA faces obstacles in the form of powerful, change-resistant bureaucratic forces[29]. 13. Enablers for RMA [30] need to be constantly viewed under the effect of the following:- (a) The political context. This is the breeding ground of war, and hence warfare. (b) The strategic context. The strategic context expresses the relationship between political demand and military supply, keyed to the particular tasks specific to a conflict. (c) The social-cultural context. Social-cultural trends are likely to prove more revealing at an early stage of the prospects for revolutionary change in warfare than missile tests, defense contracts, military maneuvers, or even, possibly, and some limited demonstration of a novel prowess in combat. (d) The economic context. Though wars are rarely waged for economic reasons, warfare is economic behaviour, interalia, just as it is, and has to be, logistical behaviour also. (e) The technological context. Warfare always has a technological context, but that context is not always the principal fuel for revolutionary change. (f) The geographical context. Military revolution keyed to the emerging exploitation of a new geographical environment has beckoned both the visionary theorist and the bold military professional. Imperatives for Effective Implementation of RMA[31] 14. Certain desirable features for implementation of RMA are:- (a) Design of a RMA force structure that would effectively use technology. (b) Technological development